INDIKATOR EKSTREMISME DAN RADIKALISME BERORIENTASIKAN AGAMA DI MALAYSIA: PETUNJUK DAN GARIS PANDUAN UNTUK MENCEGAH KEGANASAN

INDIKATOR EKSTREMISME DAN RADIKALISME BERORIENTASIKAN AGAMA DI MALAYSIA: PETUNJUK DAN GARIS PANDUAN UNTUK MENCEGAH KEGANASAN

PENDAHULUAN

Isu ekstremisme dan radikalisme berorientasikan agama semakin menjadi ancaman kepada kestabilan keselamatan nasional, khususnya dalam konteks Malaysia yang masyarakatnya bersifat majmuk dan berbilang agama. Walaupun Malaysia secara umumnya dikenali sebagai negara Islam sederhana, perkembangan global dan serantau telah membuktikan bahawa pengaruh ideologi ekstremis tetap mampu menembusi sempadan negara. Fenomena ini mendorong kepada keperluan untuk memahami, mengenal pasti dan menilai indikator awal kecenderungan ekstremisme agama bagi memperkukuh usaha pencegahan keganasan. Dengan pendekatan yang sistematik terhadap pengesanan awal, Malaysia dapat membina daya tahan masyarakat daripada ancaman radikalisasi yang semakin kompleks dan mencabar dewasa ini.

Definisi dan Kepentingan Mengenalpasti Indikator Awal


Ekstremisme berorientasikan agama merujuk kepada fahaman yang memutarbelitkan prinsip agama untuk membenarkan tindakan melampau yang boleh membawa kepada keganasan, penindasan atau diskriminasi terhadap pihak lain. Radikalisme pula merujuk kepada proses perubahan pemikiran yang membawa seseorang individu daripada kepercayaan sederhana kepada pandangan ekstrem yang menolak norma sosial dan undang-undang sedia ada. Mengenalpasti indikator awal ekstremisme adalah penting dalam konteks Malaysia kerana ia membolehkan intervensi awal dilakukan sebelum seseorang itu melangkah ke fasa tindakan keganasan. Ini termasuk pemantauan terhadap perubahan tingkah laku, kecenderungan ideologi yang menyeleweng, perlanggaran undang-undang serta aktiviti sosial yang menunjukkan sokongan terhadap perjuangan bersifat militan.

Hubungan Antara Ideologi Agama, Ekstremisme dan Keganasan


Dalam banyak kes, ideologi agama telah dimanipulasi untuk memberikan legitimasi kepada tindakan kekerasan. Di Malaysia, pengaruh ideologi seperti Salafi Jihadi dan takfiri telah membuktikan bagaimana fahaman keagamaan yang sempit boleh menjadi pemangkin kepada radikalisasi dan seterusnya keganasan. Individu yang terpengaruh dengan naratif ini bukan sahaja melihat keganasan sebagai satu kewajipan agama, tetapi juga menganggap ia satu bentuk jihad untuk menegakkan ‘kebenaran’. Justeru, memahami bagaimana ideologi agama diseleweng dan berakar umbi dalam komuniti adalah kunci penting untuk merangka strategi pencegahan dan pemulihan yang berkesan, sekali gus melindungi keharmonian serta keselamatan negara.

Latar Belakang Ekstremisme Agama di Malaysia

Malaysia mula berdepan dengan ancaman ekstremisme agama secara serius pada lewat 1990-an dan awal 2000-an, terutamanya selepas penangkapan ahli Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) yang aktif merekrut dan menjalankan latihan ketenteraan di dalam dan luar negara. Kumpulan ini mempunyai hubungan langsung dengan Al-Qaeda yang ketika itu memperluaskan pengaruhnya di Asia Tenggara. Pada dekad berikutnya, kemunculan ISIS @ Daesh telah menarik perhatian generasi baru militan Malaysia dimana sebilangan rakyat Malaysia telah ‘berhijrah’ ke Syria dan Iraq untuk berjihad, manakala yang lain terlibat dalam merancang serangan domestik. Hubungan ideologi dan jaringan antara JI, Al-Qaeda dan ISIS membentuk ekosistem ekstremisme rentas sempadan yang saling memperkukuh antara satu sama lain di rantau ini, menjadikan Malaysia sebahagian daripada medan operasi dan sokongan mereka.

Dari sudut sosial, politik dan ekonomi, beberapa faktor telah dikenal pasti menjadi pemangkin kepada penularan ideologi ekstremis. Ketidakpuasan terhadap ketidakadilan sosial, jurang ekonomi antara kaum dan wilayah serta marginalisasi golongan minoriti seperti pelarian Rohingya dan komuniti Muslim dari Selatan Thailand mencipta ruang untuk ideologi radikal berakar. Selain itu, persekitaran politik yang kadangkala mengeksploitasi sentimen agama dan kaum mempercepatkan lagi polarisasi dalam masyarakat. Kelemahan dalam kawalan institusi pendidikan agama tidak formal dan penyebaran naratif radikal melalui media sosial juga menyumbang kepada pembentukan landskap yang subur bagi ekstremisme agama di Malaysia.

Kepentingan Indikator Awal Ekstremisme dalam Konteks Malaysia

Mengesan indikator awal ekstremisme berorientasikan agama adalah amat penting dalam konteks Malaysia kerana ia membolehkan pihak berkuasa mengambil tindakan pencegahan sebelum sesuatu ancaman berubah menjadi tindakan keganasan. Dengan landskap keselamatan yang semakin kompleks, indikator seperti perubahan drastik dalam ideologi, penolakan terhadap norma sosial, pengasingan diri daripada masyarakat umum serta sokongan terbuka terhadap keganasan atas nama agama perlu dikenal pasti seawal mungkin. Pendekatan pencegahan ini seiring dengan matlamat Malaysia untuk menyeimbangkan hak asasi manusia dan keselamatan negara, memandangkan penggunaan undang-undang keras tanpa bukti kukuh boleh menimbulkan ketegangan sosial dan politik.


Dalam realiti Malaysia yang majmuk dan berbilang agama, mengenalpasti indikator awal bukan sahaja penting untuk menangani ancaman fizikal, tetapi juga untuk mengelakkan tercetusnya ketegangan antara kaum. Kegagalan mengesan kecenderungan radikal pada peringkat awal boleh menyebabkan perpecahan sosial, prejudis antara agama dan meningkatkan sokongan awam terhadap ideologi ekstremis. Justeru, membangunkan indikator yang jelas, berasaskan bukti, dan sesuai dengan konteks budaya tempatan adalah asas kepada strategi melawan keganasan Malaysia yang lebih inklusif dan berkesan, termasuk dalam inisiatif seperti MyPCVE (Pelan Tindakan Nasional Bagi Melawan Keganasan).

Hubungan antara Ideologi Agama, Ekstremisme dan Tindakan Keganasan

Di Malaysia, ideologi agama sering menjadi pemangkin kepada ekstremisme apabila ajaran agama diselewengkan untuk membenarkan tindakan kekerasan atas nama jihad atau pembelaan umat. Walaupun Islam di Malaysia secara amnya berpegang kepada prinsip sederhana (wasatiyyah), terdapat segelintir kelompok yang memanipulasi tafsiran agama untuk menyebarkan fahaman takfiri, iaitu mengkafirkan sesama Muslim yang berbeza pandangan. Fahaman seperti Salafi-Jihadi yang dibawa masuk melalui jaringan global seperti Al-Qaeda dan ISIS telah menunjukkan bagaimana ideologi agama boleh dimanipulasi untuk merekrut individu bagi menyokong atau melaksanakan tindakan keganasan, termasuk serangan bunuh diri, perancangan serangan terhadap institusi awam, dan usaha menggulingkan kerajaan yang sah.


Hubungan ini menjadi lebih berbahaya apabila ideologi ekstremis diperkukuhkan melalui pengaruh sosial dan teknologi digital. Media sosial, forum dalam talian dan aplikasi mesej peribadi menjadi platform untuk menyebarkan naratif radikal, justifikasi agama terhadap keganasan dan membina solidariti transnasional di kalangan ekstremis. Dalam kes Malaysia, propaganda ISIS dalam Bahasa Melayu melalui majalah seperti Al Fatihin dan Rumiyah membuktikan bahawa ideologi radikal boleh melangkaui sempadan geografi dan budaya. Oleh itu, memahami dinamika antara ideologi agama, ekstremisme dan tindakan keganasan adalah penting untuk membina strategi pencegahan yang bukan sahaja membanteras radikalisasi, tetapi juga memulihkan mereka yang terpengaruh secara aman dan efektif.

Indikator Awal Ekstremisme dan Radikalisme Berorientasikan Agama

Indikator Ideologi

Perubahan ketara dalam kefahaman agama adalah salah satu tanda awal ekstremisme. Individu yang dulunya sederhana boleh menunjukkan kecenderungan kepada fahaman takfiri, iaitu mudah menghukum orang lain sebagai kafir jika berbeza pandangan. Ini jelas kelihatan dalam kes pelampau yang menyokong ISIS, di mana naratif seperti wajib berjihad terhadap pemerintah yang dianggap tidak Islamik disebarkan. Mempromosi jihad bersenjata (jihad qital) juga menjadi indikator utama, di mana tindakan kekerasan dianggap ibadah dan kematian dalam pertempuran dilihat sebagai syahid. Menurut kajian oleh Pusat Deradikalisasi Malaysia pada tahun 2023, sebanyak 68% tahanan berkaitan keganasan menunjukkan perubahan drastik dalam kefahaman agama sebelum terlibat secara aktif.

Indikator Sosial

Pengasingan diri daripada masyarakat umum dan keluarga adalah corak biasa dalam proses radikalisasi. Individu yang mula memutuskan hubungan dengan keluarga yang berpegang kepada amalan Islam arus perdana atau memilih untuk tidak lagi menghadiri acara sosial mencerminkan sikap eksklusif kelompok ekstremis. Contohnya, dalam kes-kes tahanan Akta Kesalahan Keselamatan (Langkah-Langkah Khas) 2012 (SOSMA), beberapa individu radikal menolak sambutan Hari Raya dan majlis keluarga kerana menganggapnya sebagai amalan bidaah (amalan sesat). Fenomena ini memperlihatkan bahawa pemutusan sosial menjadi fasa penting sebelum tindakan ekstrem diambil.

Indikator Tingkah Laku

Keinginan untuk berhijrah ke zon konflik seperti Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan atau Selatan Filipina merupakan indikator tingkah laku ekstrem yang jelas. Ini disokong oleh data Polis Diraja Malaysia (E8 Counter Terrorism, 2025) yang melaporkan lebih 100 rakyat Malaysia pernah mencuba untuk berhijrah ke zon konflik antara 2014 hingga 2019. Di samping itu, penyebaran propaganda melalui media sosial termasuk menyebarkan video mati syahid, khutbah yang ekstrem dan ajakan untuk berjihad menjadi kaedah utama merekrut lebih ramai pengikut. Saluran Telegram, WhatsApp dan Facebook sering digunakan untuk tujuan ini kerana sifatnya yang sukar dikesan dan tersebar luas.

Indikator Keagamaan

Menyertai usrah, ceramah atau kelas agama tidak berdaftar, khususnya yang mengandungi elemen radikal, adalah tanda awal lain yang perlu diberi perhatian. Kajian oleh JAKIM pada tahun 2022 menunjukkan bahawa sebahagian besar individu yang terlibat dengan ekstremisme agama pernah menghadiri program keagamaan tidak rasmi (secara rahsia) yang tidak diawasi pihak berkuasa. Dalam kumpulan ini, topik seperti penolakan sistem demokrasi, keutamaan pelaksanaan hukum hudud tanpa konteks syarak sebenar dan mempromosi kekerasan sering menjadi bahan perbincangan. Oleh itu, pemantauan terhadap aktiviti keagamaan tidak berdaftar (secara rahsia) menjadi langkah penting dalam usaha pencegahan awal.

Indikator Awal Ekstremisme dan Radikalisme Berorientasikan Agama
Indikator Awal Ekstremisme dan Radikalisme Berorientasikan Agama
Model Indikator Awal Ekstremisme dan Radikalisme Berorientasikan Agama

Faktor Penyumbang Kepada Fenomena Ekstremisme dan Radikalisme

Fenomena ekstremisme berorientasikan agama di Malaysia tidak berlaku secara tiba-tiba, sebaliknya berpunca daripada pelbagai faktor yang saling berkait. Antaranya ialah pendidikan agama yang tidak seimbang atau terlalu literal tanpa konteks sosio politik semasa, yang membuka ruang kepada pemahaman sempit dan takfiri. Ketiadaan kawalan terhadap sumber rujukan agama serta pengaruh tokoh agama radikal dari luar turut menyumbang kepada pembentukan ideologi ekstrem dalam kalangan pengikut muda. Selain itu, media sosial menjadi platform utama penyebaran propaganda luar negara yang bersifat manipulatif, memperkukuh naratif penderitaan umat Islam global dan mempromosikan jihad bersenjata sebagai jalan penyelesaian.


Faktor lain yang turut mendorong kecenderungan kepada ekstremisme ialah kekecewaan terhadap ketidakadilan sosial-politik global seperti konflik Palestin, Syria dan Rohingya. Isu-isu ini sering dimanipulasi oleh gerakan ekstremis untuk menimbulkan simpati dan kemarahan yang boleh diterjemahkan kepada tindakan radikal. Dalam konteks tempatan, marginalisasi sosial dan ekonomi, khususnya dalam kalangan belia, pelarian dan komuniti yang terpinggir, menjadikan mereka lebih mudah dipengaruhi oleh janji-janji perubahan dan perjuangan suci yang kononnya ditawarkan oleh kumpulan ekstrem. Gabungan faktor-faktor ini menjelaskan mengapa pendekatan pencegahan memerlukan strategi yang holistik dan menyentuh akar permasalahan.

Cabaran Untuk Mengesan Indikasi Awal Fenomena Ekstremisme dan Radikalisme

Cabaran utama dalam mengesan dan mencegah ekstremisme berorientasikan agama ialah kesukaran mengenal pasti proses radikalisasi pada peringkat awal. Radikalisasi sering berlaku secara tertutup dan bersifat peribadi, sama ada melalui interaksi dalam talian, kumpulan kecil keagamaan (usrah/taklim) atau individu yang terpengaruh dengan ideologi secara senyap. Tanda-tanda awal seperti perubahan dalam kefahaman agama, pemisahan sosial, atau penyebaran naratif takfiri sering kali tidak jelas dan mudah terlepas pandang. Hal ini menjadikan pemantauan dan campur tangan awal sangat mencabar, terutamanya dalam kalangan remaja atau individu yang dilihat ‘normal’ oleh masyarakat.


Di samping itu, kerajaan berdepan dilema antara menjamin hak kebebasan beragama dan memastikan keselamatan nasional. Tindakan keras terhadap individu atau institusi agama boleh mencetuskan reaksi balas jika tidak disertai bukti kukuh, lantas menimbulkan tuduhan diskriminasi agama. Undang-undang sedia ada seperti Akta Kesalahan Keselamatan (Langkah-Langkah Khas) 2012 (SOSMA) atau Akta Pencegahan Keganasan (POTA) pula memiliki keterbatasan dari segi penguatkuasaan terhadap bentuk ekstremisme bukan keganasan (non-violent extremism). Maka, pendekatan holistik yang merangkumi undang-undang, pendidikan, pencegahan awal serta kerjasama masyarakat amat diperlukan bagi menangani ekstremisme secara berkesan tanpa menjejaskan prinsip hak asasi manusia.

Garis Panduan dan Petunjuk untuk Mencegah Ekstremisme

Pencegahan ekstremisme agama memerlukan pendekatan yang menyeluruh dan berasaskan komuniti. Pendekatan seperti Community Policing dan Religious Outreach membolehkan agensi keselamatan dan pihak berkuasa agama mendekati masyarakat secara langsung, membina kepercayaan, serta mengenal pasti potensi radikalisasi lebih awal. Melalui jaringan setempat dan penglibatan imam, guru agama serta pemimpin komuniti, penyebaran ideologi ekstrem dapat dibendung sebelum merebak. Inisiatif ini juga memberi ruang kepada masyarakat untuk menjadi barisan hadapan dalam mencegah pengaruh luar yang bersifat radikal.

Institusi agama seperti JAKIM dan Majlis Agama Islam Negeri memainkan peranan penting dalam memastikan ajaran Islam yang disampaikan adalah seimbang dan berlandaskan prinsip rahmatan lil ‘alamin. Mereka bertanggungjawab memantau kandungan ceramah, khutbah, aktiviti keagamaan serta memberi pentauliahan kepada pendakwah yang sah. Selain itu, kerjasama antara institusi agama dan pihak keselamatan perlu diperkukuh bagi menangani ceramah tidak berdaftar yang cenderung membawa fahaman takfiri atau ideologi keras.

Sistem pendidikan agama juga harus dirombak dengan menekankan nilai keamanan, toleransi, dan kewarganegaraan sejagat. Modul pengajian perlu merangkumi pemahaman terhadap pelbagai mazhab, prinsip maqasid syariah dan konsep jihad dalam konteks moden. Dengan itu, generasi muda dapat membentuk pemikiran yang kritikal serta menolak naratif hitam-putih yang sering dipromosikan oleh kumpulan ekstrem. Pendidikan yang bersifat inklusif dapat menjadi benteng awal terhadap pengaruh ideologi pelampau.

Akhir sekali, program deradikalisasi dan rehabilitasi di penjara serta pusat tahanan perlu diperkasa secara sistematik. Program sedia ada seperti yang dijalankan oleh pihak polis dan Jabatan Penjara Malaysia harus ditambah baik melalui sokongan psikososial, kaunseling agama dan pemulihan ekonomi. Bekas tahanan perlu diberi peluang reintegrasi yang bermakna ke dalam masyarakat dengan pemantauan berperingkat. Pendekatan ini penting bagi mencegah kitaran semula radikalisasi (recedivism) dan menjamin keselamatan jangka panjang negara.

Kajian Kes

Kajian kes di Malaysia menunjukkan bagaimana proses radikalisasi boleh dikesan melalui indikator awal seperti perubahan ideologi, pengasingan sosial dan tingkah laku mencurigakan. Contohnya, kes individu seperti Muhammad Wanndy Mohamad Jedi yang menjadi anggota aktif ISIS di Syria dapat dikesan melalui mempromosi jihad bersenjata di media sosial dan penyebaran propaganda dalam Bahasa Malaysia. Begitu juga dengan penangkapan beberapa individu di Johor dan Sabah yang menghadiri kelas agama tidak berdaftar dan merancang untuk berhijrah ke zon konflik turut memperlihatkan corak radikalisasi awal.


Sejak tahun 2017, MDIO melalui Cawangan Anti Keganasan juga telah melaksanakan beberapa siri Program Deradikalisasi yang dikenali sebagai Program PERISAI SATRIA terhadap warga ATM yang telah dikesan melalui indikator awal. Beberapa indikator awal seperti yang telah dibincangkan menjadi petunjuk kepada Cawangan Anti Keganasan untuk memilih warga ATM yang didapati menunjukkan kecenderungan kepada elemen-elemen ekstremisme dan radikalisme. Dalam aspek pencegahan, program deradikalisasi oleh Polis Diraja Malaysia melalui Bahagian Counter Terrorism E8, Cawangan Khas telah berjaya memulihkan sejumlah individu yang terlibat dengan ekstremisme, dengan kadar kejayaan yang tinggi dalam mengelakkan pengulangan jenayah. Program ini menggabungkan kaunseling agama, sokongan psikologi serta reintegrasi sosial dan ekonomi yang menyeluruh, menjadikannya rujukan di peringkat antarabangsa dalam usaha menangani keganasan berasaskan ideologi agama.

PENUTUP


Sebagai rumusan, pengenalpastian awal terhadap indikator ekstremisme dan radikalisme berorientasikan agama adalah penting bagi membolehkan tindakan pencegahan dilaksanakan sebelum seseorang individu melangkah ke tahap keganasan. Perubahan dalam kefahaman agama, pengasingan sosial, penyebaran ideologi secara dalam talian serta penglibatan dalam aktiviti keagamaan tidak berdaftar merupakan antara petunjuk kritikal yang perlu diberi perhatian serius oleh semua pihak yang terlibat dalam keselamatan dan keharmonian negara.
Bagi memastikan pencegahan ekstremisme lebih berkesan, pendekatan bersepadu perlu diperkukuh antara agensi kerajaan seperti PDRM dan JAKIM, institusi agama negeri, institusi pengajian tinggi, pertubuhan bukan kerajaan (NGO) dan komuniti tempatan. Pendidikan agama yang seimbang, program deradikalisasi yang diperkemas serta penglibatan aktif masyarakat dalam mengenalpasti dan melaporkan tingkah laku mencurigakan adalah langkah ke hadapan. Di samping itu, penggunaan teknologi untuk pemantauan siber dan pembinaan naratif melawan ekstremisme dalam ruang digital juga harus diperkasa sebagai sebahagian daripada strategi masa depan.

INDICATOR BENCHMARK FOR EXTREMISM AND RADICALISM WITH RELIGIOUS ORIENTATION IN MALAYSIA: GUIDES FOR COUNTER TERRORISM PRACTITIONERS

INDICATOR BENCHMARK FOR EXTREMISM AND RADICALISM WITH RELIGIOUS ORIENTATION IN MALAYSIA: GUIDES FOR COUNTER TERRORISM PRACTITIONERS

The study of an indicator benchmark for extremism and radicalism with religious orientation is vital for safeguarding Malaysia’s social harmony, security, and global reputation. By providing a structured framework for early detection, intervention, and prevention, it strengthens the country’s resilience against these threats while upholding its identity as a pluralistic and moderate nation.

Developing indicator benchmarks for extremism and radicalism with religious orientation in Malaysia involves identifying specific, measurable indicators that can signal tendencies toward radical or extremist views and behaviours. These benchmarks should be contextually appropriate, considering Malaysia’s unique socio-religious landscape, its multicultural society, and the government’s existing frameworks.

The study on developing an indicator benchmark for extremism and radicalism with a religious orientation in Malaysia is critical for several reasons. It can be summarised as follows:

a.    Firstly, it will address the security threats. This study will address the emerging radicalization trends. Currently, Malaysia faces threats from groups promoting extremist ideologies, often misinterpreting religious teachings. A benchmark helps identify these trends early. This benchmark can also be utilised for prevention of violence whereas an early detection of radicalization reduces the risk of violent acts, such as terrorism or communal violence.

b.    Secondly, this study is important for protecting national unity. Malaysia is unique with it diverse society which make up a multicultural and multireligious nation. Extremism, particularly when tied to religious orientation, poses a threat to social harmony and interfaith relationships. The most important, this benchmark will safeguarding Moderate Islam in which Malaysia promotes itself as a hub for moderate Islamic thought. Identifying radical tendencies ensures this identity is preserved.

c.    Thirdly, this study is beneficial in informing policy and government intervention programs. This benchmark will provide evidence-based policies in which a benchmark provides empirical data, enabling the government and institutions to design targeted interventions. Furthermore, this benchmark enhanced efficient resource allocation in which it will helps prioritize areas and communities most at risk, ensuring optimal use of resources for counter-radicalization programs.

d. Fourthly, this benchmark should be able to enhance law enforcement and intelligence capabilities by improving detection. The standardized benchmark designed allows law enforcement and intelligence agencies to identify early signs of radicalization in individuals or groups. By aligning detection indicators across agencies, responses become more consistent and effective.

e.  Fifthly, the benchmark on these extremist indicators will promote education and awareness to those relevant stakeholders. This benchmark will enable educational institutions and religious organizations to address misinterpretations of religious teachings that foster extremism. In term of community engagement, these benchmarks help create tailored programs to promote awareness at the grassroots level.

 f.     This study is particularly important in mitigating online radicalization which are the current trends now. As online platforms increasingly facilitate radicalization, these benchmarks provide criteria for identifying extremist narratives online. It will also assist in engaging tech companies to curb the spread of extremist content based on well-defined indicators.

 g.    Lastly, this study is expected to reduce stigmatization and ensuring fairness against target groups in Malaysia. This benchmark minimizes the risk of arbitrary or biased accusations against individuals or groups by providing objective assessment and inclusivity. This is to ensures the framework is not perceived as targeting specific religions or communities unfairly. 

For the purpose of guidelines, here are some steps and considerations to create effective indicators for counter terrorism practitioners in Malaysia:

STEP 1: DEFINE EXTREMISM AND RADICALISM IN THE MALAYSIAN CONTEXT

Firstly, clarification on what constitutes “extremism” and “radicalism” from both a religious and legal standpoint in Malaysia must be establish. This involves examining government definitions, societal norms, and local religious leaders’ views. The Malaysian National Action Plan on Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism (NAP-PCVE) launched on 30th Sep 2024 by Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim, for instance, can provide a foundation for these definitions.

STEP 2: IDENTIFY KEY DOMAINS FOR INDICATORS

There are few key domains that need to be identify as follows:

a. Ideological Indicators: Beliefs, statements, or behaviours that reflect extremist interpretations of religious texts or doctrines.

b. Behavioural Indicators: Actions that suggest a shift from belief to potential action, such as attending meetings with radical groups or significant changes in lifestyle linked to extremism.

c. Social and Community Indicators: Changes in social interactions, withdrawal from mainstream religious communities, or affiliation with known extremist groups.

d. Communication and Media Consumption: Online activity, including social media and consumption of extremist content or websites.

STEP 3: DEVELOP QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE INDICATORS

There are two ways in developing this methodology as follows:

a. Qualitative Indicators may include sentiment analysis of speech or writings that indicate increasing alignment with extremist ideologies. This could involve monitoring statements made by individuals or religious groups regarding topics such as governance, secularism, and religious minorities.

b. Quantitative Indicators could include the number of followers or members associated with specific religious groups identified as extremist, frequency of online engagement with extremist content, or reported incidents of hate speech or violence inspired by religious ideologies.

STEP 4: SAMPLE INDICATORS FOR EXTREMISM AND RADICALISM IN RELIGIOUS CONTEXT

Based on the current trends in extremism, there are various sample indicators that can be utilise as a parameter for measurement such as:

a. Belief in Violent Jihad: Expressed belief that violent means are justified for defending or spreading faith.

b. Rejection of Diversity: Open rejection of Malaysia’s pluralistic society and advocacy for religious homogeneity, especially through divisive rhetoric.

c. Isolation from Mainstream Religious Practices: Choosing not to attend mainstream places of worship or events in favour of closed, unregistered groups.

d. Consumption of and Interaction with Extremist Content: Regular online engagement with extremist religious materials, social media accounts, or websites.

e. Support for Anti-Government or Anti-Social Narratives: Advocacy or promotion of narratives against the state, other religious groups, or specific ethnic communities.

STEP 5: CONSIDER SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL INFLUENCES

As what has been recognised, extremism and radicalism can be influenced by social, economic, and political contexts. Therefore, the parameters should include benchmarks for these external conditions as well, such as:

a. Economic Disparities: High levels of unemployment or poverty in communities/specific states that may feel marginalized or targeted.

b. Political Tensions: Periods of heightened political conflict or polarization especially is the states ruled by oppositions.

c. Cultural or Religious Conflicts: Incidents or issues causing friction between religious or ethnic groups, like perceived threats to religious identity.

 STEP 6: UTILISE EXISTING FRAMEWORKS FOR DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

The validity and relevancy of these indicator can be further augmented and validate by utilising existing data from various sources. Leveraging Malaysia’s intelligence and law enforcement mechanisms as well as community policing efforts is one of the approaches. The Royal Malaysian Police (PDRM), Malaysian Defence Intelligence Organisation (MDIO), Religious Affairs Department (JAKIM), and civil society organizations can be valuable partners. The use of AI software-driven sentiment analysis tools on social media and other public forums to identify surges in extremist or radical content and understand public sentiment on sensitive issues is one of the advantages in confirming the data collection.

STEP 7: BENCHMARK WITH REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS

Malaysia can compare its indicators to global benchmarks to identify shared trends and adapt successful interventions from other countries. By comparing religious extremism indicators across countries, it provides valuable insights into the causes, manifestations, and effective responses to extremism, ultimately contributing to global peace and security. By doing so, it will enhance international collaboration in combating extremism. Comparison can be done with what has been used by countries with similar challenges in religious extremism, such as Indonesia and the Philippines, as well as regional organizations like ASEAN. International guidelines from organizations like UNESCO and UNODC also provide standards for identifying and countering violent extremism with attention to religious orientation.

 STEP 8: PERIODIC REVIEW AND ADJUSTMENT OF BENCHMARKS

All indicators should be reviewed periodically and adapted based on current trends and emerging threats. This could include tracking changes in radical messaging methods, such as new platforms for digital extremism.

 

SAMPLE INDICATOR BENCHMARK STRUCTURE

These benchmarks will allow Malaysian authorities and CT practitioners to track trends, analyse causes, and implement measures to counter extremism effectively within a religiously oriented context.

Here are examples of indicators that may help identify ideological, behavioural, social, and media-based trends associated with extremism or radicalization: 

IDEOLOGICAL INDICATORS

a. Extremist Interpretations of Religious TextsThis indicator can be detected from open promotion of literal or selective interpretations of religious texts that justify violence against perceived enemies or “non-believers.”

b. Justification of Violence in Religious ContextThis indicator can be observed from the statements that glorify or endorse acts of violence against those who are perceived to oppose or disrespect the religion.

c. Rejection of Secular GovernanceThis indicator can be observed from public or private assertions that secular governance is inherently corrupt or evil, often coupled with calls to establish a religious state governed solely by religious law.

d. Exclusive Claims to Religious TruthIt can be seen from the statements and belief that only their interpretation of religion is correct, and all other interpretations, groups, or denominations are invalid or enemies.

e. Denunciation of Pluralistic or Diverse SocietiesThis indicator can be detected from statements that reject coexistence with other religions, cultures, or ethnicities, often accompanied by disparaging remarks or accusations.

BEHAVIOURAL INDICATORS

a.  Attendance at Radical Gatherings or Secretive MeetingsThis indicator can be detected from activities of joining or attending gatherings led by individuals known for their radical or extremist views, often organised in private or secretive locations.

b. Adopting Distinctive Dress or SymbolsThis indicator can be noticed from abrupt changes in appearance, such as wearing specific religious attire or symbols associated with extremist groups, may indicate increasing alignment with radical ideologies.

c. Withdrawal from Previously Accepted Social ActivitiesThis indicator can be observed from a sudden and noticeable withdrawal from work, school, or community activities, especially if motivated by perceived conflicts with new beliefs.

d. Financial Transactions Linked to Extremist GroupsThis indicator can be detected from evidence of sending money to organizations or individuals known to support extremist causes, which could indicate material support for extremist activities.

e. Increasingly Hostile or Aggressive BehaviourThis indicator can be observed from increased anger, frustration, or hostility toward individuals or groups perceived as religious or ideological “others.”

SOCIAL AND COMMUNITY INDICATORS

a. Isolation from Mainstream Religious CommunitiesThis indicator can be observed from individuals which choosing to stop attending community events, mosques, or gatherings in favour of isolated worship with a small, insular group.

b. Joining New Religious Groups Known for ExtremismThis indicator can be detected from individuals who is changing affiliations to religious groups with known radical leanings or associations with extremist rhetoric or activities.

c. Changes in Friend CirclesThis indicator can be observed from individuals who is abandoning previous friendships or connections to form new, close relationships with individuals or groups with radical views.

d. Encouraging Family or Friends to Follow Extremist BeliefsThis indicator can be observed from activities of persuading or pressuring others to adopt the same radical beliefs, often in an effort to isolate family members from moderate views.

e. Increased Suspicion or Distrust of Law Enforcement or GovernmentThis indicator can be seen from shifting to view authorities as illegitimate or hostile due to beliefs that the government opposes religious values. 

COMMUNICATION AND MEDIA CONSUMPTION

a. Regular Consumption of Extremist or Radical ContentThis indicator can be detected from individuals who is frequently visiting extremist websites, watching videos, or reading publications known for radical or violent rhetoric, which may include material from global extremist organizations.

b. Posting or Sharing Extremist Content on Social Media: This indicator can be detected from individuals who is publicly sharing videos, articles, or messages that align with extremist narratives, or using language that glorifies extremism or radical leaders.

c. Engaging in Online Discussions with Extremist Groups: This indicator can be detected from individuals who is participating in forums, chat rooms, or social media groups known for promoting extremist ideologies, possibly under anonymous profiles or pseudonyms.

d. Using Encrypted Communication Platforms: This indicator can be detected from individuals who is shifting to encrypted messaging apps or anonymous networks like Telegram, often as a means to communicate with like-minded individuals privately.

e. Public Denouncement or Condemnation of Government Policies: This indicator can be detected from individuals who is frequently posting content online that condemns the government or secular policies in favour of an extremist worldview, potentially reaching a wider audience with radical messages.

CASE STUDIES FOR REFERENCES

Malaysia has observed several cases and examples that highlight these indicators of extremism, particularly among individuals and small groups who have moved toward radicalisation. Here are a few relevant cases that can illustrate each of the indicators mentioned:

Belief in Violent Jihad

Case Study: In recent years, Malaysia has apprehended individuals who attempted to travel to conflict zones, such as Syria, with the intent of joining extremist groups like Daesh @ ISIS. Some of these individuals were influenced by the belief that violent jihad was necessary for the defense or expansion of Islam. For example, in 2019, a 22-year-old Malaysian was detained after attempting to join Daesh @ ISIS in Syria. He expressed that his purpose was to engage in “jihad” to defend the Islamic faith, illustrating an acceptance of violence as a religious duty.

Rejection of Diversity

Case Study: In the 2018 arrest of several radicalized individuals in Terengganu, some detainees openly rejected Malaysia’s multicultural society, stating their disdain for non-Muslim communities. They were part of a local extremist network that promoted divisive ideologies, attempting to recruit others through talks that denounced interfaith harmony and advocated for a singular religious identity for Malaysia. This case highlights an underlying intent to disrupt Malaysia’s pluralistic society by propagating ideologies of religious homogeneity and intolerance.

Isolation from Mainstream Religious Practices

Case Study: A 2017and 2024 investigation into unregistered religious study groups in Malaysia revealed that some of these groups actively isolated their members from mainstream mosques and teachings. These groups would gather in private homes, sometimes led by individuals with radical views who rejected the practices endorsed by the official religious authorities. For example, a splinter group in Kedah and Selangor discouraged its members from attending local mosques, instead conducting closed, unregistered gatherings where they propagated radical interpretations of Islam and questioned established religious practices.

Consumption of and Interaction with Extremist Content

Case Study: In a notable case from 2020, Malaysian authorities detained individuals who were highly active in online extremist communities. These individuals were found regularly consuming and sharing content from international terrorist organizations. They accessed encrypted communication platforms to engage with online content promoting extremist ideologies, including materials from Daesh @ ISIS-linked sources. They also followed social media accounts of known extremists, which served as both inspiration and a source of encouragement to participate in violent actions.

Support for Anti-Government or Anti-Social Narratives

Case Study: In recent years, a group in various states in Malaysia was found promoting anti-government sentiments, describing the Malaysian government as “un-Islamic” and accusing it of being a puppet of foreign powers. Members were encouraged to withdraw from civic responsibilities, avoid government institutions, and resist cooperating with the authorities. This narrative often included rhetoric against non-Muslim communities, positioning them as enemies of Islam. This rhetoric became part of an informal recruitment strategy, creating a divide between members of the group and the larger Malaysian society.

SUMMARY

Developing the indicator benchmarks for extremism and radicalism with a religious orientation is particularly important for Malaysia due to its unique sociopolitical and cultural context. Malaysia is a multi-ethnic, multi-religious nation where Islam is the official religion, but other religions are constitutionally protected. Ensuring benchmarks for extremism help maintain harmony by identifying and mitigating factors that could disrupt social cohesion.

Benchmarks allow for early detection of radical or extremist tendencies, which could lead to increased polarization between communities. Preventive measures can safeguard against tensions arising from misuse or politicisation of religion. Malaysia’s demographic and political structure necessitate policies that are specific to its local context. This benchmarks also helps counter terrorism practitioners, intelligence agencies and policymakers create evidence-based strategies to combat extremism without alienating any community. By following this benchmark, Malaysia can strengthen its societal resilience, prevent divisive ideologies, and continue to be a model for religious and cultural harmony in the region.

 

 

Photo by mostafa meraji on Unsplash

Counter-Narratives: Techniques and Best Practices

Lift your heads up high. You now have a state and a caliphate that restores your honor, your might, your rights and your sovereignty. The state forms a tie of brotherhood between Arab and non-Arab, white and black, Easterner and Westerner. The caliphate brings together the Caucasian, Indian, Chinese, Shami, Iraqi, Yemeni, Egyptian, North African, American, French, German and Australian…. They are all in the same trench, defending each other, protecting each other and sacrificing for one another. Their blood mingles together under one flag [with] one goal and in one camp… perform hijra from darul-kufr to darul Islam. There are homes here for you and your families. You can be a major contributor towards the liberation of Makkah, Madinah, and al-Quds. Would you not like to reach Judgment Day with these grand deeds… A life of jihad is impossible until you pack your belongings and move to the caliphate.[1]

Why did so many Southeast Asian Muslims leave their countries to join Daesh in Syria and Iraq? To answer this question, it is necessary to understand the conceptual importance and historical significance of hijra (pilgrimage) in Islam. Hijra refers to the flight of Prophet Muhammad (SAW) and his followers from Mecca to Yathrib (Medina) in 622 CE to escape religious persecution by the Meccans. This event also marked the beginning of the Muslim era – year 1 of the Hijri lunar calendar. On this day, Muslims around the world celebrate Awal Muharram, whichsignifies the first day on the Muslim calendar to remember the Prophet Muhammad (SAW)’s migration.

The terrorist group known as Daesh, or the Islamic State, saw this Islamic chronicle as a convenient opportunity to augment their state-building enterprise. Daesh weaved themselves into the narrative by promoting the concept of hijra to Iraq and Syria (al-Sham) to sugar-coat their so-called Caliphate as a legitimate substitute for Mecca. This was by no means a valid religious obligation, but in fact an effort on their part to recruit foreign terrorist fighters (FTFs) and replenish their ranks. Further examination of their propaganda identified eight core messages in their narratives on hijra to their Caliphate. They were:

  • Calls to hijra,
  • Significance and legitimacy of hijra,
  • Promises of rewards achieved from hijra,
  • Punishments for not performing hijra,
  • Exemplary behaviour in relation to hijra,
  • Women’s role within the context of hijra,
  • Alternatives to and variations of hijra, and
  • Hijra as atonement for one’s sins.

These eight attributes highlighted how these messages resonated strongly with the targeted Muslim audience. For Muslim individuals who are anxious about becoming better Muslims by looking for ways to absolve their sins, they might have found Daesh’s promises of the great Caliphate appealing. For Muslims seeking a more meaningful existence in life, Daesh’s offer of adventurism within the Caliphate struck a chord with them. Moreover, Daesh effortlessly milked identity politics to promote the idea that it is impossible for both Muslims and non-Muslims to co-exist, and the Caliphate was the ideal alternative that Daesh could offer. Daesh had capitalised on the wars that the West had waged in Iraq and Afghanistan in their Great War on Terror (GWOT) campaign by fanning grievances and exploiting the sense of injustice felt by Muslims because of them.

In 2008, while Daesh was still going by the Islamic State of Iraq (ISI) and had been driven out of Baghdad by US troops, another dramatic exigency was unfolding across the globe. The excessive lending by banks triggered the Global Financial Crisis (GFC) in 2008, which saw the economy of the United States and Western Europe collapsed. As the recession emerged in Wall Street, its tidal waves swept across the world and struck the Southeast Asian economies through trade and financial channels, sending their exports and stock prices tumbling. As incomes fell, a new class of working poor started to surface as the retrenchments caused the job market to shift from formal steady occupation to informal and vulnerable employment in 2009. By the time ISI proclaimed Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi as the leader of ISI in 2010, the gig economy was introduced for the first time through the launch of the shared ride company, Über.

With the rising unemployment in the region, increasing sense of marginalisation and discrimination, growing frustration with the systemic corruption, and soaring desperation to survive, this injustice felt even more profound. Over the years, Daesh’s media organ intensified their propaganda effort to give off the illusion that there were better and greater opportunities within Iraq and Syria. Their messaging campaign was very appealing to the young Southeast Asian Muslims who were struggling to find new opportunities. The dream of starting a new life where one could feel wanted with a sense of belonging was irresistible. On average, young Muslims who were raised in strict and conservative households were found to be more susceptible to Daesh’s promise of Elysium, as their desire to rebel was more profound. As of December 2015, approximately 30,000 foreign terrorist fighters from 85 countries had arrived in Iraq and Syria. Even though they were confronted with evidence of a brutal life under Daesh’s governance, which was fraught with injustice, barbarity, and totalitarianism, they could not be convinced otherwise. Daesh had successfully created a powerful fantasy that had largely gone unchallenged for too long. This was a damning indictment upon most governments in this region as well as within civil society for their inaction.

The need to create strong and effective counter-narratives has never been more urgent. Policymakers need to understand how important it is to take control of existing narratives to push out the message that life outside of Daesh’s brutish authoritarianism is both possible and better. It is important to promote the idea that Muslims can and should co-exist with non-Muslims. It is also equally important to emphasise that Islamic values are equally compatible with other values. Policymakers should recognise that it is crucial to nurture the message that living in a multicultural society where different people of different ethnicities and nationalities is an incredible and meaningful experience. This is more empowering and resilient than Daesh’s divisive ideology of fascism and nihilism.

The concept of creating counter-narratives in order to push back against extremist recruitment and propaganda has become well-established in recent years. However, in practice, it has proven to be difficult to curate this in a systematic way in order to target the demographics who are at risk. Most importantly, to be able to measure the impact of the counter-narrative against their behaviour to analyse the results to explain and understand the FTF phenomenon. The following techniques and best practices can be adopted based on different scenario and country:

  • Narratives are effective tools. Terrorist groups are adept at using narratives in their communications both to mobilise support and to delegitimise governments. It is vital to understand how narratives are utilised in order to counter them. Terrorists exploit both online and traditional media, but both media may also be important partners for countering violent extremism effort.
  • Targeting the right audience. Prevention of radicalisation is likely to be a more productive approach than attempting to deradicalise those who have already joined terrorist organisations. In particular, the key target audience for counter-narrative efforts should be the so-called fence sitters, individuals who are showing an active interest in extremism (or are being targeted by recruiters) but who are still undecided and have yet to mobilise.
  • Simplicity of messaging. Terrorist narratives tend to convey simple, yet powerful messages. Tailored to their target audience, these messages are often visually, intellectually or emotionally stimulating. Counter-narrative efforts must use similar techniques to be equally effective.
  • The importance of non-governmental partners. Regardless of the method of delivery (on- or off-line, direct or indirect) non-governmental partners have a crucial role to play. Key partners may include a variety of NGOs, charities, faith institutions, local networks, community leaders and individual citizens as well as the private sector. Governments must seek to build trust, engage with, empower, and facilitate the actions of these key partners, without destroying their credibility as influential messengers. It was also recognised that a hard counterterrorism (CT) approach may sometimes undermine these relationships, meaning that special care must be taken to maintain them.
  • Timing is everything. Counter-narrative efforts must be timely, dynamic and flexible to respond to rapid changes in the environment. This is a particular challenge for government bureaucracies.
  • Measuring impact. Online platforms in particular provide some readily available measurements such as number of visits or page views, likes, shares, discoverability in search engines, global reach and comments. However, as important as such measures are, they are relatively superficial. It is essential to try to measure the impact of counter-narratives among the target audience in as much detail as possible in order to identify best practices.

Since counter-narratives are only effective as the first line of defence, it is even more necessary to develop credible alternative narratives – narratives that can give a new sense of purpose, meaning and hope to those who feel that they have no future in the society. Those in the positions of authority have to show them that we are not living in blocked societies where desired changes can only be achieved through violence. Policymakers have to listen not only to the grievances of young people but also address their hopes and their expectations for the future. They must be able to empower young people to actively shape their own future in pluralistic and open societies. It is imperative to show that terrorism is futile in the wake of the destruction it causes because it could never achieve concession, and therefore must be unequivocally rejected.


[1] K. Leggiero, “Countering ISIS Recruitment in Western Nations”, Journal of Political Risk 3, No. 1 (January 2015)